Bhakti Movement in North
India its context and contributions
A cursory out line
What is Bhakti ?
Bhakti
literally means “devotion” or passionate love for the
Divine. The word is derived from Bhakta meaning to serve, honor, revere, love
and adore. In the religious idiom, it is attachment or fervent devotion to God
and is defined as "that particular affection which is generated by the
knowledge of the attributes of the Adorable One." The concept is traceable
to the Vedas where its intimations are audible in the hymns addressed to
deities such as Varuna, Savitra and Usha. However, the word bhakti does not
occur there. The word occurs for the first time in the Upanishads where it
appears with the co-doctrines of grace and self surrender.
According to Dilip Chitere well known Marathi scholar, devotion,
loyalty, faithfulness; engagement, commitment; dedication; reverence, service,
homage; the condition of the whole being of a Bhakta whose mind and body are
totally absorbed in the object of his worship and remain continually directed
or oriented towards it; the object of such worship can be an anthropomorphic
deity, a symbol, a name, an image, a concept, an abstraction, or the
non-discursive or inconceivable "Whole Being" itself.
The Indic systems of religions belived like
any other religions in the circle of birth and rebirth. Moksha- salvation or liberation from
this cycle of birth and rebirth was deemed to be the goal of practitioners of
religious systems. Bhakti School of thought preached that Moksha is not in the
following of rules, regulations or societal ordering; but it would be trough
simple devotion to the Divine.
Steams of Bhakti –
Saguna and Nirguna
According
to M. S. Ahluvalia before
the appearance of Islam on Indian soil, there had been two major traditions of
thought in India:
Vedic and non-Vedic. The Vedic tradition which we call Hinduism in modem
terminology, believes in the Ultimate authority of the Vedas. The Vedas,
which are the primary testimony in matters related to religion and philosophy
in Hinduism, are considered Shruti i.e. revealed by God himself. Upanishads
are a part of the Vedas and the puranas, Itihasas, Shastras
and Bhagwad Gita are considered as Smriti. There were non-Vedic schools of
thought also as old as Vedic traditions- Like Jainism, Buddism, Ajivaka,
Charvaka , These traditions did not believe in the ultimate authority of the Vedas,
rather they opposed it.
Bhakti
movement spanned of medieval India
(700-1700). Beginning
from the South under the inspiration of reformers, mystics and poets, a wave
spread throughout India.
This has often been called the Bhakti movement, for the promoters of this wave
sought to bring the desired change through love and devotion to the Almighty. Bhakti is simple, easily given, open to all
and does not involve any special exertions. However, the major element of
Bhakti from the devotee's point of view surely involves surrender to the lord.
Its popularity lies in the fact that it is regarded far superior to the
sophisticated Vedic worship-forms favored by the Brahmins.
Bhakti
movement branched into several different movements all across South and North India. In North India,
Bhakti movement is closely interconnected with Sufi movement of Shia Muslims of
Chisti fame. In the Bhakti line of thought distinctions have been made scholars between
those poet saints who composed verses extolling God with attributes or
form, namely, “saguna”( generally
associated with with form- Sakara )
bhaktas, and, those extolling God without and beyond all attributes or form, “nirguna.”( generally associated with formless ness –Nirakara) bhaktas. The nirguna-saguna
model of the medieval north Indian Bhakti movement emphasizes the primacy
of doctrines and theological ideas in the teachings of various Bhakti leaders.
This model makes a clear distinction between nirguni sants (such as
Kabir, Raidas, Dadu etc.) and saguni Vaishnava Bhaktas (such as Mirabai,
Surdas, Tulsidas, etc.).
Nirguni santism focus
on its origins, its uncompromising monotheism and unique perception of God, its
rejection of the orthodox Brahmanical and Islamic religions and their
scriptures and, finally, its opposition to the Brahmanical caste system. On the
other hand, the saguni Vaishnavas are seen as accepting the basic
premises of the varna
doctrine and the ritual supremacy of the Brahmans. The nirguna-saguna model
thus underlines the two-fold theological and social division of the Bhakti
movement.
The
nirguna-saguna model was first popularized by Hindi scholars such as
Ramchandra Shukla,
P.D.Barthwal
and Parashuram Chaturvedi.
Bhakti Kal (the Age of Bhakti) is divided the period into two distinct
theological categories; Kabir, Raidas, Dadu, etc. were placed in the nirguna
category (due to their faith in the non-incarnate, formless God) and the
Vaishnava devotees of the later period such as Surdas and Tulsidas were placed
in the saguna category (as they championed the cause of a personal, incarnate
god in a human form).
The social context
The
ideas of Bhakti saints were basically dealt with relation between the divine
and the individual. By the period 6th century A.D definition of this
relation- between the human and the divine- was imprisoned in Vedas and
Shastras. The idea of birth based supremacy
was the reigning social idea. The society was divided in to four Varnas namely
the Brahmana,( the academic) Khsatriya ( warrior) , Vaishya ( trades man) , and Shudra.( workers) There was an another
underclass of Avarnas or Panchamas who were treated as
untouchables out side the four fold society.
The
original idea of Varna division was more based on
functional and intellectual attributes. They were not solidified and were not
ascribed to birth. But by 6th century gradually acceptance of birth
based hierarchy became reality ones again. The socio cultural environment was
supportive of rigid social classification.
This
rigid stratification of society was supported by the ruling classes. They were
exalted as Protectors of Varna Dharma.
Smriti Kartas- codifiers of laws of that period emphasized
on purity of birth, as an unchallenged dictum to determine social status. This
naturally led to divisions in the society. This context placed two major
problems in the spiritual domain that is the relation between the individual
and divine.
Firstly this rigid Varna dharma order said that spiritual
experience is possible only with an understanding of Vedas and Shasta’s, and
secondly limited the access to those sources to the Brahmin, male
unconditionally and to an extent Khsatriya and Vaishya male with some pre conditions. Women of all varnas and all the shudras were rejected
access to those sources of “spiritual wisdom”. The status of Avarnas (those out of four fold varna
system) or the Untouchables was quite low and despicable. Restricted access and
exclusion were the two main features of the iniquitous order.
The
Bhakti Movement was an integral aspect of medieval Period. This was due in part
to the rise of a new line of kings, the Gupta lineage of 4th and 5th
C.E that supported the pantheon of gods
through worship of divine images (puja) and also included the building
of temples and support for devotional groups.
Alongside
these developments came a flourishing of mythical compositions about the gods,
known as the Puranas, or, “ancient stories.” Central to this pantheon were the
gods Vishnu, the cosmic king, and Shiva, the great yogi and ascetic known by
many names, and his feminine counterpart, Shakti, or divine energy. Shakti was
worshipped both as wife and consort of Shiva, but also in her own right as the
Great Goddess. Vishnu in his many incarnations known as avatars, Krishna and Rama being the most popular of manifestations
was worshiped. Worshipers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavites. Those worshiping Shiva are known as Shaivites, whereas followers of the
feminine divine are Shaktas.
This
milieu stirred the minds of intellectuals of that time. The rigid social
divisions and exclusion was challenged. Attempts were made to open up the
spiritual domain started again.[i]
Advent of early Christianity and early Islam might have also played a role for this intellectual churning[ii]. Challenge from
the productive classes who were part of creating huge wealth and thus part of
construction of great temples[iii]
to become part of it.
Genesis and Spread
Bhakti
Movement had its genesis in the South of India in the6th century C.E It is
characterized by the writings of its poet-saints, many of whom were female and
non upper varnas, that extolled
passionate devotional love for the Divine. The Bhaktas of Vashinava cult were named as Nandanars or Alwars, the
Shivite Bhaktas were named as Naynars.
There
are various waves of across India to name varakari
Movement in Maharashtra, Daasa Koota Bhakti of Karnatka, Ramanada line in the
North Gangetic palins, Kabir Pantha and
Nanak Line( later became Sikh religion) to
name a few. The Bhakti Movement gained momentum from the 12th centuries in the
central, western and northern regions of India, and then moved northward
coming to an end roughly in the 17th century.
Bhakti Movementin North India.
The
advent of Islamic rule in the north India led to serious social
realignment. There was a serious thinking about the divisive nature of varan dharma order and resentment of un
touchability were gradually took a shape. Added to this rejection of orthodox
islam was also germinated. The Nirguna
Bhakti line and the sufi line
are paved way for monotheism and principled living.
Kabir Das (1440AD-1518 A.D.), Gru
Nanak( 1469AD) and Ravi Das(1450-1520) through their preaching and practices
popularized the oneness of human beings.The saguna Bhaktas Like Ramanda, (1400
to 1480 A.D.) Surdas (1478 to 1583), laid emphasis to ritual free devotion .
The Sufis like Baba Farid, (1173 A.D. - 1266 AD ) Nizamudden Avulia and others
paved way to build bridges of interreligious understanding. Thse streams of thought influence the renowned
Mughal emperor Akbar to think about a universal religion named Deen-E
-Ellahi.
Fallowing
is an example of the vision of Sant Ravi
Das who was born as a cobbler ( Chamar)
about a place named Begum pura whre there is no distinction based on caste
,creed . In this poem the essence of egalitarianism for which the Bhakti saints
strived hard.
Begumpura
sahar ko nao(u).
Dookhu andohu nahee tihi thaao
Begumpura
is the name of the joyful city and at that place, there is no suffering and
sorrows.
Na tasvees khiraaju na maal(u).
Khouph(u) na khataa na taras(u) Jawaal(u)
That
place is free from worry of paying taxes nor anybody holds property there.
Neither awe nor error nor dread nor decline is there.
Ab mohi khoob vatan gah paaiee.
Uoohan khair sada mera bhaaiee. (Rahaao)
Guru
Ji says that I have found an excellent abode. O Brothers! There is everlasting
safety there.
Kaaim(u) daaim(u) sada paaitsaahee.
Dom na sem ek so aahi.
In Begumpura, there is eternal
sovereignty of God and there are no second or third; all are alike-no high or
low
Aabaadaan(u) sada mashoor.
Uoohan ganee basih maamoor.
That
famous pious place is fully populated and those abiding there are spiritually
enlightened.
Tiou(u) tiou(u) sail karih jiou(u) bhaavail
Mahram mahal na ko atkaavai.
Residents
can stroll about as they please and there is no restriction of any kind for the
inmates.
Kaho Ravidass Khalas chamaaraa.
Jo hum sharee so mit(u) hamaara
Guru
Ji says that he, an emancipated cobbler, is a friend of all the residents of
that city
Guru
Nanak has developed the west Indian blended the Nirguna Bhakti and Sufi schools
and laid foundation Sikh religion[iv]
based on the principles of universality, principled household living, and
monotheism. Later it became an independent religion with considerable
following. Though The words ram, and rahim were used in the Banis of Sikh Gurus
they are symbols of one universal God.
The
saguna shool of thought also produced noted saints. North Indian Saguana Bhakti
was represented by Sooradas and
Tulasidas in their classic writings. Compared to Nirguna sants saguna sants
were tolarent of Varna
system. Their contribution lies in popularizing the existing religious order
with some reforms.
Prime Characteristics of Bhakti
Movement
As
mentioned earlier Bhakti Marga has taken up two forms as Saguna and Nirguna
forms .While the differences between these two branches are indeed important,
their overarching similarities cannot be minimized; both focused on singular devotion, mystical love for God and had a particular focus on a personal relationship with the Divine.
Given
their belief in the centrality of personal devotion, poet-saints were highly
critical of ritual observances as maintained and fostered by the Brahmin
priesthood. For many, their critique was
included the caste system that supported the traditional religious hierarchy, with
Brahmins at the head of this hierarchy. Many poet-saints, particularly as
the movement developed northward were themselves of lower caste lineages.
Another commonality was their usage of
the vernacular or regional languages of
the masses, as opposed to the sacred language of the elite priesthood, Sanskrit. This practice too stemmed
from the movement’s focus on inner, mystical and highly personal devotion to the
Divine.
Many
of the Bhakti poet-saints rejected
asceticism as the crucial means toward liberation; some bhaktas were
instead householders. Focus on universalism, a general rejection of
institutionalized religion, and a central
focus on inner devotion laid the ground work for more egalitarian attitudes
toward women and lower caste devotees in Bhakti movement. Women and shudras,.
Both at the bottom of the traditional hierarchy ordering society became the
examples of true humility and devotion. Caste status and even masculinity were
understood as barriers to liberation, in essence this was a rejection of the
hierarchy laid out by the Law Books of the Classical Period.
Contribution of Bhakti
Movement
Thus
Bhakti Movement paved way for open access and inclusion equality. It rejected birth based purity and pollution.
It brought the essence of religion out of the clutches of obsolete ritualism.
The movement championed experiential basis for divinity and made it universal.
Thus in essence bhaktas movement paved way for equality of human beings and
freedom of thought. Universalism,
equality and freedom are bedrocks of inclusive democracy. Bhakti movement stood
for those ideals in principle and in practice.
The values for which the Bhakti
saints stood for are the eternal values for which each generation has to keep
working consciously. The Ideas emphasized in the simple lyric of Begampura are
the ideals still to be pursued. Preamble of Indian constitution namely liberty,
equality, Justice and fraternity reverberates with the values emphasized by the
bhakti saints. Gail Omvedt noted social
scientist in her recent book
writing about the post independent pursuit for social justice and equality. Title
of the book shows the significance of the thinking of the fourteenth century
poet saint Ravi das and the pursuit of Dr.
B.R. Amebedkar and his like. This is book is a testimony of the contemporary
relevance of issues raised by the radical bhakti saints.
Conclusion
trayi sānkhyam yogah pasupati matam vaishnavamiti
prabhinne prasthāne paramidamadah pathyamiti ca,
rucīnām vaicitryād riju kutila nānā pathajushām
nrināmeko gamyastvamsasi payasā marnava iva.
Different
paths (to realization) arc enjoined by the three Vedas, by Sankhya, Yoga,
Pashupata (Shaiva) doctrine and Vaishnava Shastras. People follow different
paths, straight or crooked; according to their temperament, depending on which
they consider best, or most appropriate—and reach You alone just as rivers
enter the ocean.
This is the essence of the Bhakti .
M. S. Ahluwalia :
Reflections on the Bhakti Movement in Tamil Nadu and Punjab: SikhSpectrum.com Quarterly Issue No.19, February 2005 http://sikhspectrum.com/2005/02/reflections-on-the-bhakti-movement-in-tamil-nadu-and-punjab/
last visited in 3 july 2009
Rameshwar Prasad
Bahuguna : Confict and Assimilation in
Medieval North Indian Bhakti an
Alternative Approach. SAP-History
Monograph - 6 SAP (UGC) Programme,
Department of History and Culture Jamia Millia Islamia 2004
Ramachandra Shukla: Hindi Sahitya Ka Itihas,
originally published in 1926, Varanasi:
Nagari Pracharini Sabha, reprint, 1952
P.D. Barthwal, The Nirguna School of Hindi Poetry
first edn., 1936, reprint, Delhi,
1978.
Parashuram
Chaturvedi, Uttari Bharat Ki Sant Parampara, first edn., Allahabad, 1952,
Dalit Struggle and a
legend, S.Vishwanathan (Review article of : The Legend of Nandan:
Nandan Kathai by Indira Parthasarathy, translated from the Tamil by C.T.
Indra; Oxford University Press2008.) in
Frontline Vol:20 Iss:08
[ii] Christianity and Islam in their soft forms first
reached the west and south west cost of India. Both the systems of thought
e were originated in the arid regions of Asia founded on monotheism( concept of one god)
and on universal access to the divine without any distinction and
discrimination based on birth.
[iii]
The construction
of mammoth temples in south India
and parts of north India
coincides with the period of Bhakti movement. It was natural for the artisans
and others workers who were part of developing these institutions wanted to be
part of the institutions. There are of stories in Bhakti literature of attempts
of shudras and the
untouchables who were ardent devotees and wanted to enter in to the temple to
have a glimpse of the deity they were immensely
fond off. NANDAN KATHAI or story of
Nnandan written in Shiva Bhakti
literature gives an account of effort of
a an untouchable devotee Nandanas earning to enter in to temple in
Chidambaram where a famous temple for
lord Shiva is there.
[iv]
Sikhism undoubtedly accepted some of the aspects of radicalized bhakti, and
admitted some of its practices into its own ordained set. It did lay down
spiritual love as the way to the deity, but the deity to be worshipped was
neither Shiva nor Vishnu nor even any of their incarnations, nor any of the
gods or goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. It was the One and the Only God, the
Lord of Universes who was at once transcendent (nirguna) and immanent (saguna).
Although immanent in his Creation He was yet apart from it, being its Creator.
Since He in he real in the world that He had created, the world could not be
considered unreal or illusionary ( Mithya or Maya). It was real and sacred
("the abode of the True One"). It is therefore blasphemous to
renounce it in quest of God. "He that is immanent in the Universe resides
also within yourself. Seek, and ye shall find" (ee, 695). Renunciation of
the world as a spiritual pursuit thus stood totally rejected. Celebacy was no
longer countenanced, either. Full participation in life in a spirit of
'detachment' was prescribed instead. "Of all the religious rules and
observances grihasthya (the homestead) is supreme. It is from here that all
else is blessed" (Guru Granth Sahib, 587). Guru is paramount in bhakti as
well as in Sikhism.
